Jesus Christ-عیسی مسیح-عیسی ناصری

B corresponds to the Aramaic naggara. In fact, Vermes argued

, when the Talmud refers to someone as a “carpenter,” 

it might imply a very learned man. This would mean

, then, that the authors of the Gospels would be indicating Joseph

 was in fact a learned man, who was not only wise but also

 literate in the Torah, regardless of his trade.

ing of τέκτων is sometimes less than totally clear from the context. In some

instances, it seemed best to render it as (a) builder; (b) carpenter; (c) smith;

(d) sculptor; (e) joiner. Four times τέκτων is contrasted with (a) smith; (b)

potter; (c) cobbler. Five times the term αρχιτέκτων is employed, meaning

master builder or architect, and even master!sculptor. In the case of the other

eight instances, it was considered wisest to render τέκτων in such general

terms as builder, craftsman, or artisan.

2. Philo. Now we turn to the Jewish philosopher Philo. Though Jewish,

Philo of Alexandria inhabited a mental world of Hellenistic philosophy and

cultural values, so it is not surprising to find him employing the word τέκτων

in ways similar to the secular Greek writers. He does so three times.

"The τέκτονα ("carpenter) and the painter and the husbandman and the

musician and those who practice other arts (τέχνας). . . the τεκτονικός (carpenter) takes and carves a piece of timber . . . we speak not only of carpenters, but of practicing carpentry (τέκτονι το τεκτονεΐν)" (Sobr. 35.36).

"Some of the arts . . . are practical, but not theoretical, as the arts of the

τεκτονικει, χαλκευτικει (carpenter and coppersmith)" (Leg. 57).

These instances could be rendered as craftsman, but carpenter would

suit the contexts better.

3. Josephus. Turning now to Flavius Josephus, he employs τέκτων four

times in the War, and seven times in the Antiquities. There is an interesting

difference between the two works in regard to the usage of this word. First,

the Antiquities.

Moses, after recompensing with fitting bounties the τέκτονας (craftsmen) who

had executed works so excellent, sacrificed ... (3.204).

They (rulers) will make of them τεχνίτας (craftsmen), makers of armour, of

chariots and of instruments . .. (6.40).

Gifts of cedar wood and skilled men as τέκτονας και οικοδόµους (carpenters and

builders) to construct a palace in Jerusalem (7.66).

You also have many tens of thousands of µυριάδας καΐ τεκτόνων (stone cutters

and carpenters) (7.340).

He had already secured many talents of gold and more of silver, and wood and

a host of τεκτόνων πλήθος και λατόµων (carpenters and stone cutters) as well as

emeralds and precious stones (7.377).

They also began the building of the temple, giving large sums of money to the

λατόµοις και τέκτοσι (stone cutters and carpenters) (11.78).

. . . trained some as οικοδόµους (builders), others as τέκτονας (carpenters)

(15.390).

All of these occurrences of the word have to do with the tabernacle or the

temple or the palace, and plainly Josephus in his reading of the Hebrew text

understands τέκτων in these contexts to refer usually to workers in

ined above—was their devotion to and their knowledge of the Scriptures of

the OT. It is necessary, therefore, to review the Hebrew term that these

Jewish writers (who thought in Aramaic/Hebrew first) translated as τέκτων.

That term is häräs.

5. The Old Testament. In the Hebrew Bible the verb häräs occurs 26

times and means "to cut into, inscribe, to fabricate, out of metal. . . wood,

stone, with an ace. of the material."18

 Another lexicon says, "to engrave,

plough, devise. The basic idea is cutting into some material, e.g. engraving

metal or ploughing soil."19

 The generality of application is due to the fact

that similar tools were employed to work different materials, most of which

were designed to cut or carve something.

The noun häräs occurs 35 times and means "craftsman; on stone, on

wood; metal worker (smith), armourer; workers of wood and stone; of wood

and metal.,,2° Again, another lexicon gives this rendering: "Engraver, artificer

(a) in metal (b) in wood (c) in stone (d) general."21

 NIDOTTE gives "craftsman, artisan," while Cline has "artisan . . . worker in stone . . . in wood . . .

in metal."22

These conclusions are based on the following passages.

First, uncertainties arise in several passages where häräs is set alongside or distinguished from a related term. For example, we find häräs distinguished from (a) builders, masons, stone cutters in 2 Kgs 12:11, 12; 22:6;

(b) smiths in 2 Kgs 24:14, 16; Isa 40:19; 41:7; Jer 24:1; 29:2; 2 Chr 34:11;

(c) masons in 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Chr 14:1; 22:15; 2 Chr 24:12; Ezra 3:7; (d)

woodsman in 1 Chr 22:14 (häräs eben wa'ès)', (e) weavers and designers in

Exod 38:23. While this fluidity can be confusing to the reader, the biblical

authors evidently intend to distinguish between various kinds of craftsmen

and assume that the context sufficiently defines the particular trade or skill

in that specific situation. In temple contexts it appears that workers in

wood were most frequently intended.

Second, there are texts in which the meaning is clearly smiths or metalworkers, often in 

the context of fashioning idols: Deut 27:15; 1 Sam 13:19;

Isa 40:19; 44:11-12; 45:16; 54:16; Jer 10:9; Hos 8:6; 13:2; 1 Chr 29:5. Then

in the following contexts, which are concerned with the tabernacle and the

must repudiate the romantic notion that Jesus spent his time sitting on the

hillsides watching the daily activities of his contemporary citizens (often patronized today as mere "peasants"), and taking mental notes of his observations so that he could later use them as sermon illustrations. Rather, Jesus'

employment of stories and metaphors was based on (a) his intimate knowledge of the Scriptures; and (b) his own hard!won experience growing up on

a terraced farm in Nazareth, participating in the cyclical life of the village,

going to work every day, attending the synagogue, and interacting with his

family, clan, neighbors, and strangers.

During most of the twentieth century, the majority of scholarly analysis

of the parables and the teaching of Jesus generally focused on the literary

forms, not the substance of the Gospels material. Under the influence of form

and redaction!critical theories, much effort has been expended in attempting

to separate the "original" teaching of Jesus from the later alleged concerns

of the Church. Not surprisingly, little consensus on this rather subjective

enterprise has been achieved. In what follows we use a different approach.

We are not concerned with the rhetorical and theological uses Jesus made of

the imagery he employed, but with the vocabulary and imagery itself.35

What is indisputable about Jesus' early life is that (a) he interacted on a

daily basis with family, clan, neighbors, and strangers, like everyone else

in a Galilean village; (b) he grew up in the farming village of Nazareth in

Galilee and therefore was involved to an extent daily with its agrarian environment; (c) he 

worked with his father at first, then probably with his

family later as a τέκτων, and consequently knew firsthand the occupational

and business experiences of a first!century craftsman. So the scope of the

teaching and vocabulary of Jesus can be allocated to the spheres of (1) agrarian culture; 

(2) social interaction; (3) financial affairs; (4) occupation. These

are the areas of Jesus' life which were intrinsic to his existence for thirty

years and from which he consequently drew his vocabulary and descriptive

Several references appear concerning vineyards and wine (Matt 20:1!16;

John 15:1!8; Matt 21:33!44; John 2:1!11). Frequent references to fruit!

bearing trees are also evident (Matt 7:16!20; 12:33 fruit trees; Luke 17:6

mulberry; Matt 24:32!35 pars, fig trees). Jesus refers often to sheep and

shepherding (Matt 9:16; 12:11!12; 18:12!14; 26:31; Mark 14:27; Luke 10:3;

12:32; 14:4!7; 17:7; John 10:1!18; 21:15!17). He also reveals a certain knowledge of fish (Matt 7:10; 12:20) and fishing (Matt 13:47!50; Luke 5:4!11; John

21:6). Jesus was familiar with some of the uses of salt in the economy (Matt

5:13; Mark 9:49!50; Luke 14:34!35).

Not surprisingly Jesus refers to the fauna of Galilee: (a) animals: oxen

(Matt 11:29!30; Luke 13:15); foxes (Matt 8:20 par.; Luke 9:58; 13:32); wolves

(Matt 9:16; Luke 10:3; John 10:12); dogs (Matt 15:26; Luke 16:21); snakes

(Matt 10:16; 23:33); goats (Matt 25:32, 33); calves (Luke 15:23); donkeys

(Luke 13:15); camels (Matt 23:24); gnats and moths (Matt 23:24; 6:19; Luke

12:33); snakes (Luke 10:19); maggots (Mark 9:48). Similarly, there are several references to the bird life of Galilee: (b) birds in general (Matt 8:20;

Matt 13:4; Luke 12:6, 24); eagles (Luke 17:37); vultures (Matt 24:28; Luke

17:37); roosters (Matt 26:34; Luke 22:34) and hens (Luke 13:34); doves (Matt

10:16; Luke 2:24); sparrows (Matt 10:29); and crows (Luke 12:24).

Jesus at times indicates the local flora: grass and flowers (Luke 12:27!28);

thistles (Matt 7:16); thorns (Matt 13:7); grapes (Matt 7:16); wheat (John

12:24). He also indicates his awareness of different soil types (Matt 13:3!8).

Finally, Jesus shows an understanding of the climate, which everyone who

works the land must possess (Matt 5:45; Luke 12:54!56; 17:24).

This is the conversational material that places Jesus in his first!century

Palestinian agrarian context. In reality, there is little surprising about the

knowledge that Jesus displays of his environment. Most of his contemporaries

would have done the same.

In addition to the above, there is a range of domestic and farming terminology in 

the mouth of Jesus which is to be expected regardless of his

(παροψίς): Matt 23:25; dish (τρύβλιον): Matt 26:23; Mark 14:20; bucket/basket (µόδιος): Matt 5:15; needle (ραφίς, βελόνη): Matt 19:24; Luke 18:25.

2. Social interaction. We will deal first with Jesus' references to the

home and then to the wider social context.

With regard to the social structure of the home, we discover Jesus referring to the father's care for his children (Matt 7:9!12; Luke 11:11!13). He

reiterates the duty of children to their parents in Matt 15:4!6 pars.; 19:19.

He alludes also to homes with servants (Matt 14:45!51). Jesus furthermore

refers to the Israelite concept of hospitality to strangers (Matt 10:11!14;

Luke 9:2!5) and to friendships (Matt 11:16; 20:13; Luke 14:10; 15:9, 29).

Notable are his earnest concern for widows and his strong denunciations of

those who took advantage of them (Matt 23:14 pars.; Mark 12:42, 43 par.;

Luke 4:25, 26; 7:12; 18:3, 5). Even on the cross he made provision for the

care of his mother (John 19:25!27).

Concerning the dwelling's physical structure, Jesus mentions the private

room of the house (Matt 6:6; Luke 12:3), the guest/dining room of large

homes (Matt 26:3; John 10:16), cellars (Luke 11:33), as well as the roof (Matt

10:27; 14:17). In addition, there is reference in his teaching to the objects

found in small homes such as lamps and bowls which were made of clay, not

wood, and beds which were reed mats (Matt 5:14!16; Mark 4:21; Luke 8:16;

11:33). Activities that he mentions include sweeping (Luke 14:8); cooking

(Luke 12:1; 13:21; in John, Jesus also cooked! John 21:9!13); baking (Matt

13:33 pars.); washing utensils (Luke 11:39); lighting lamps (Matt 5:14!16

pars.); grinding grain (Matt 14:41); sewing (Matt 9:16); and filling wine

bottles (Matt 9:17). All these features of the first!century Palestinian home

were experienced by Jesus in his own home and in those that he visited (or

worked on) before he undertook his public ministry.

Outside of the confines of the home, Jesus gives us considerable information about his social awareness and interaction. Mention is made in his teaching of pregnancy and childbirth (John 16:21) and of orphans (John 14:18).

Matthew tells us that Jesus himself had brothers and sisters (Matt 12:46!

50 pars.). A prominent feature of his teaching is the frequent use of weddings

as a source of instruction (Matt 9:19!20; 22:1!14; 25:1!13; John 2:1!11).

His teaching on marriage and divorce is well known (Matt 5:27!32; 19:3!12),

as are his references to children and their intrinsic value (Matt 18:1!11;

19:13!15). He had obviously observed them at play (Matt 11:16!17; Luke

6:32). He was also familiar with the problem of difficult and rebellious children growing up

 (Matt 21:28!32; Luke 15:11!32). The latter parable of "the

prodigal son" raises the matter of family honor, as does Jesus' reference to

social rank in Luke 14:7!15. More than once Jesus makes mention of family

and other social divisions (Matt 12:25!30 pars.). Sometimes he taught that

division is justified by devotion to Jesus that conflicts with existing family

relationships (Matt 10:21!23, 34!42; Mark 10:29!31). In fact, Jesus himself

made a choice between his natural and his new spiritual family (Matt 12:26!

50). Just before his death he made provision for his mother to be received

occupation

references. We will survey them briefly in turn, beginning with the most

familiar sphere of reference

priestly garments, häräs means engravers of precious stones: Exod 28:11;